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| Aggressive and violent behavior can be viewed along a continuum with verbal aggression at one end and physical violence at other end. Specific reasons for aggressive behavior vary from person to person. Anger occurs in response to a perceived threat. This may be a threat of physical injury or more often a threat to the self concept. When the self is threatened, people may not be entirely aware of the source of their anger. A threat may be internal or external. Examples of external stressors are physical attack, loss of a significant relationship and criticism from others. Internal stressors might include a sense of might include a sense of failure at work, perceived loss of love and fear of physical illness. Anger is the only one emotional response to these stressors. Some people might respond with depression or withdrawal. However, those reactions are usually accompanied by anger which may be difficult for the person to express directly. Depression is sometimes viewed as anger directed towards the self, and withdrawal may also be a passive expression of anger. A number of theories on the development of aggressive behavior have influenced the treatment of violent patients. They can be categorized as psychological, socio cultural and biological. One psychological view of aggressive behavior suggests the importance of predisposing developmental or life experiences that limit the person's capacity to select nonviolent coping mechanisms. Some of these experiences may include:
It has been also suggested that a disruption in the mother infant bonding process can lead to the development of poor interpersonal behavior that may increase the likelihood of violent behavior. When combined with neurological deficits, the risk of violent behavior is increased. Social learning theory proposes that aggressive behavior is learned through the socialization process as a result of internal and external learning. Internal learning occurs through the personal reinforcement received when enacting aggressive behavior. This may be the result of achieving a desired goal or experiencing feelings of importance, power and control. External learning process occurs through the observation of role models such as parents, peers, siblings and sports and entertainment figures. Sociocultural patterns that lead to the imitation of aggressive behavior suggest that violence is an acceptable social status. Activities such as violent crime, aggressive sports, and war depicted through the media or witnessed, in person reinforce aggressive behavior. Social and cultural factors also may influence aggressive behavior. Cultural norms help to define acceptable and unacceptable means of expressing aggressive behavior feelings. Sanctions are applied to violators of the norms through the legal systems. By this means, society controls violent behavior and attempts to maintain a safe existence of its members. A cultural norm that supports verbally assertive expressions of anger will help people deal with anger in a healthy manner. A norm that reinforces violent behavior will result in physical expression of anger in destructive ways. Social determinants of violence are:
3. BIOLOGICAL THEORY
Neurotransmitters have also been suggested as having a role in the expression or expression of the aggressive behavior. I. Limbic system t is associated with the mediation of basic drives and the expression of human emotions and behaviors such as eating, aggression and sexual response. It is also involved in the processing of information and memory. Alterations in the functioning of limbic system may result in an increase or decrease in the potential for aggressive behavior. In particular, the amygdala, part of the limbic system, mediates the expression of the rage and fear. II. Frontal lobe:
III. Hypothalamus It is situated at the base of the brain, is the brains alarm system. Stress raises the level of steroids, the hormones secreted by the adrenal glands. Nerve receptors for these hormones become less sensitive in an attempt to compensate and hypothalamus tells the pituitary glands to release more steroids. After repeated stimulation, the system may respond more vigorously to all provocations. That may be one reason why traumatic stress in childhood may permanently enhance one's potential for violence. Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are brain chemicals that are transmitted to and from neurons across synapses, resulting in communication between brain structures. An increase or decrease in this behavior can influence behavior. People who commit suicide and homicidal have lower than average levels of 5-HIAA, the breakdown product of the serotonin, in their spinal fluid. Other neurotransmitters often associated with aggressive behavior are dopamine nor epinephrine and acetylcholine and the amino acid GABA. Animal studies indicate that increasing in brain dopamine and nor epinephrine activity significantly enhances the likelihood that animal will respond to the environment in an impulsively violent manner. PREDISPOSING FACTORS a). Twin studies : concordance rate for monozygotic twins exceed the rates for dizygotic twins b). Pedigree studies: the persons with family histories of mental disorders are more susceptible to mental disorder and engage in more aggressive behavior than those without such histories. Those with low IQ scores appear to have frequency of delinquency and aggression than those with normal IQ scores. c) Chromosomal influences: XYY syndrome contributes to aggressive behavior. The person with this syndrome are tall, below average intelligence and likely to be apprehend and in prison for engaging in criminal behavior. Cholinergic and catecholaminergic mechanisms seem to be involved in the induction and enhancement of predatory aggression whereas seroteonergic system and GABA seem to inhibit such behavior. Dopamine seems to facilitate aggression, whereas nor epinephrine and serotonin appears to inhibit such behavior. Some human studies have indicated that 5-HIAA levels in CSF inversely correlates with the frequency of aggression, particularly among persons who commit suicide. Epilepsy of temporal lobe and frontal lobe origin results in episodic aggression ad violent behavior .Tumors in the brain ,particularly in the areas of the limbic system and the temporal lobe ,trauma to the brain ,resulting in cerebral changes and the disease such as encephalitis have been implicated in the predisposition to aggression and violent behavior. Instinctive behavior Lorenz's view: According to Konard Lorenz , aggression that causes physical harm to others springs from a fighting instinct that humans share with other organisms. The energy associated with this instinct is produced spontaneously in organisms at a more or less constant rate. Learned behavior Aggression is primarily a learned form of social behavior. According to Albert Bandura, neither innate urges toward violence nor aggressive drives aroused by frustration are the roots of human aggression. He said that aggression is the learned behavior under voluntary control. The learning of aggressive behavior occurs by observation and modeling. For example, a child watches an angry parent strikes out another person. Learning aggressive behavior also takes place by direct experiences. The person feels anger and behaves aggressively. If behaving aggressively brings rewards, the behavior is encouraged. Moreno believed that anger is a natural by product of the learning process; it is signal that a person wants to learn something. The more inadequate a person feels, the more anger may be present. Moreno also believed that anger is spontaneous energy that propels an individual into new learning. a). Frustration: The single most potent means of inciting human beings to aggression is frustration. Widespread acceptance of this view stems from John Dollard's frustration, aggression hypothesis. This hypothesis indicated that frustration always leads to a form of aggression and that aggression always stem from frustration. Frustrated persons do not always respond with aggressive thoughts and words, or deeds. They may show a wide variety of reactions ranging from resignation, depression and despair to attempts to overcome the sources of frustration. Examination of the evidence indicates that whether frustration increases or fails to enhance covert aggression depends largely on two factors. First, frustration appears to increase aggression only when the frustration is intense. When it is mild or moderate, aggression may not be enhanced. Second frustration is likely to facilitate aggression when it is perceived as arbitrary or illegitimate, rather than when it is viewed s deserved or legitimate. b). Direct provocation: Evidence indicates that physical abuse and verbal taunts from others often elicit aggressive actions. Once aggression begins, it often shows an unsettling pattern of escalation; as a result even mild verbal slurs or glancing blows may initiate a process of in which a stronger and stronger provocation are exchanged. c). Television violence: A link between aggression and televised violence has been noted. The more televised violence children watch, the greater is their level of aggression against others. Mechanisms underlying the effects of televised and filmed violence on the behavior of the viewers
d). Computer games: Similar concerns have been raised the bout computer game with violent themes. Some studies indicate that adolescents become desensitized to homicidal activities after repeated exposure, especially if the game involves killing the virtual opponents, which is common in many computer programs.
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| Nursing Management of Aggression Posted: 07 Jul 2010 08:55 AM PDT
Aggression arises from an innate drives or occurs as a defense mechanism and is manifested either by constructive or destructive acts directly towards self or others. Aggressive people ignore the rights of other people. They must fight for their own interests and they expect same from others. An aggressive approach to life may lead to physical or verbal violence. The aggressive behavior often covers a basic lack of self confidence. Aggressive people enhance to their self esteem by overpowering others and there by proving their superiority. They try to cover up their insecurities and vulnerabilities by acting aggressive. Meaning
Characteristics of aggressive behavior
Types of aggression
Moyer Classification
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| Posted: 07 Jul 2010 08:29 AM PDT Osteoporosis in Men Today, the lack of awareness of osteoporosis and fractures as a disease in men is similar to the lack of awareness in women 50 years ago. Men do not realize that the ’silent epidemic’ of osteoporosis affects them and that their bones are becoming thinner, more porous and brittle during adult life. Traditionally thought of as a women’s disease, in the last decade the notion that bone loss is also an inevitable consequence of ageing in men has finally emerged. Although fragility fractures are less common in men than in women, when they occur, these fractures can be associated with higher morbidity and death than in women. Overall, one in five men over the age of 50 will have an osteoporosis related fracture in their remaining lifetime.
* Prolonged exposure to certain medications, such as steroids used to treat asthma or arthritis, anticonvulsants, certain cancer treatments and aluminum containing antacids The size of the problem Over a man’s lifetime just under half of his bone mass achieved during growth to young adulthood is lost. This loss of bone is the same as the amount lost in women but men compensate better by laying down more new bone on the outer surface of the bone as part of the natural process of bone remodeling. However, this addition of new bone on the outside surface does not entirely compensate for the loss of bone on its inside surface and so about one in five men over 50 will have a bone fracture that reduces the quality of their lives, and reduces the length of their lives. The lifetime risk of a man suffering an osteoporotic fracture is greater than his likelihood of developing prostate cancer. Men with spine fractures have smaller bones, and the shell of the bone is thin and porous. The honeycomb or sponge-like bone that functions like a spring or shock absorber is thinned, resulting in the honeycomb connections making the bone ’spring-like’ being lost, so that when a force is placed on the bone it does not ‘give’ but rather cracks under the load and may collapse completely, which causes a fracture of the spine. If fractures occur there may be severe pain, loss of height, and severe curvature of the spine. If there is severe curvature this can impair the function of the lungs and impair normal breathing. Only a handful of osteoporosis treatments have been approved for use by men – the others have not been subjected to the lengthy and expensive clinical trials that are required. Drugs have been less studied in men than in women with osteoporosis. At present the best studied drug for men is from the bisphosphonate drug group, alendronate. Testosterone increases bone density in men with low levels of this male hormone. Calcium supplements have not been well studied in men but probably should be administered in men taking less than one gram of calcium daily. Osteoporosis is one of the more preventable diseases associated with ageing. Paying attention to bone health throughout life, from childhood onwards, is the most effective way of building and maintaining bone strength, thus decreasing bone loss and brittleness that can lead to the first fracture. source : http://www.iofbonehealth.org/patients-public/more-topics/osteoporosis-in-men.html Please read this important information |
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